A Timeline of Conservation and Wildlife Management in Zimbabwe.

Mutapa Kingdom

1200

Establishment of Great Zimbabwea prosperous African Kingdom centered around cattle production, gold mining and trade.

1450

A combination of overgrazing and drought Zimbabwe Plateau surrounding Great Zimbabwe resulted in soil exhaustion, declining crop yeilds, and famine leading to it's eventual abandonment. Between 5000 and 30000 people were living in Great Zimbabwe at it's peak.

Early Colonial Settlement and Wildlife Decline

1896

Rinderpest, a contagious viral disease epidemic decimates wildlife in Rhodesia.

1899

Rhodesian Scientific Association (now Zimbabwe Scientific Association) formed to promote the advancement of science in Rhodesia. Their publications still provide an important local avenue for dissemination of research.

1900

Elephant population c.a. 4000, Human population c.a. 500 000.

1902

Cecil Rhodes dies, bequeathing estates at Matopos and Nyanga to the nation as National Parks.

1912

Extinction of white rhino in Rhodesia.

1919

Tsetse control programme launched. For the next 40 years the control programme involved exterminating over half a million large game animals in low-lying parts of the country supposedly to eliminate the fly's food source. Cattle grazing and early burning activities following the settlement of these dry, marginal areas lead to land degradation.

1927

The Wildlife Society of Rhodesia (now Wildlife and Environment Society of Zimbabwe) is established. Over the years they played a significant role in lobbying government on environmental issues, education, wildlife management and tourism. They now have many environmental centers and camps around the country, including the well-known Mukuvisi Woodlands in Harare. With membership at 2 500 (2002), it is the largest wildlife-oriented society in Zimbabwe.

1928

Hwange National Park, Rhodesia's largest park, established on marginal land prone to tsetse flies and drought.

1932

First largemouth bass introduced into the Matopos dam for angling, these predatory fish were subsequently translocated throughout the country by anglers and have lead to significant declines in native minnow populations in some areas.

1933

Rhodesia becomes party to the London Convention Relative to the Preservation of Fauna and Flora in their Natural State. While landholders under license could hunt on their own properties it became illegal to trade in their meat and skin. Some species were protected throughout their range, but this was impossible to enforce. Meanwhile, state veterinarians encouraged wildlife extermination to reduce cattle disease, and thousands of wild animals were being shot each year for Tsetse control.

1937

First record of water hyacinth, an invasive aquatic weed from South America.

1941

The Natural Resources Act—Rhodesia's principal environmental legislation passed in response to growing concern over soil erosion and deforestation. This lead to the formation of the Natural Resources Board and the Intensive Conservation Area Committees comprised of private individuals and farmers who advised their peers on land husbandry issues.

1944  

James Kapnek donated the founding grant for the University of Rhodesia, an institution that plays an important role in wildlife research and management.

1950

Crocodile populations at critically low levels as a result of over-hunting for their valuable skins.

Tree Society founded.

1951

Ornithological Association of Rhodesia (now Birdlife Zimbabwe) founded for the appreciation and conservation of birds and their habitats. Important contributions over the years have included the black eagle survey, important bird areas, the Zimbabwe crane working-group, and blue swallows and educational programs.

1956

Government offers bounty on painted hunting dogs as part of a predator-control programme that extended into National Parks, leading to the death of 2 700 animals.

Conservation Movement Gains Momentum

1958

Reay Smithers, director of the National Museum invites 3 American Fullbright Scholars to Zimbabwe, Thane Riney, Ray Dasmann and Archie Mossman who begin work on the principles of wildlife management based on the principles of sustainable development.

1959

Kariba dam wall complete, soon to be the largest man-made lake in the world, and to have many significant environmental consequences including disruption of flood cycles on the middle Zambezi floodplain and the decline in rheophilic (current-loving fishes) and eels from much of their former range.

This beginning of Operation Noah, which involved the rescue of more than 6000 animals trapped on islands by the rising lake levels. This highly publicized operation drew much publicity and media attention, sparking the first widespread public interest in wildlife conservation.

1960

Wildlife Conservation Act revises legislation and philosophy governing Wildlife conservation; controlled hunting areas were established formalizing the game-hunting sector.

Flora Zambesiaca project begins with wide collaboration of many eminent botanists. This is an ongoing taxonomic project compiling taxonomic information on the 10 000 or so plants of the Zambezi basin.

Bulldozing of pans in Gonarezohou in the 1960's (exact dates unknown) in order to control Tsetse flies. These pans were important habitats for seasonal fishes including lungfish and Nothobranchius furzeri —an attractive, seasonal killifish that is now considered endangered largely due to this action.

The Nile crocodile becomes a protected species.

The mammals of Rhodesia, Zambia and Malawi by Reay Smithers is published.

1961

High court ruling ends state ownership of wild game on private land. Landowners no longer required hunting licenses on their own land. This lead to the gradual increase in wildlife outside National Park estates as wildlife became viewed as an asset rather than competition and wildlife ‘farming' was a realistic land use option.

Game ranching in Zimbabwe begins on Buffalo Range in the Lowveld

‘ An illustrated guide to the freshwater fishes of the Zambezi River, Lake Kariba, Pungwe, Sabi, Lundi and Limpopo rivers ' by Rex and Hilda Jubb published.

1963

Formation of the department of National Parks and Wildlife Management through the amalgamation of the Southern Rhodesian Dept. of Wildlife Conservation and the Federal Department of National Parks.

Ray Dasmann publishes seminal work African Game Ranching advocating sustainable development practices.

1964

Bulawayo Natural History Museum opens to public.

Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain by white minority government.

1965

First permits issued to capture baby crocodiles and eggs and raise them in captivity for commercial purposes, providing that 10% (and later 5%) of successfully reared animals are returned to the wild. This eventually grew into a successful industry and undercut poaching with hides from a legitimate source and replenished some wild crocodile populations.

1966

Kapenta were introduced on the Zambian side of Lake Kariba to occupy the newly created open-water habitat. Their population eventually grew to form the basis of Zimbabwe's largest commercial fishery.

1969

Aloe and succulent society of Rhodesia formed to advance the appreciation and conservation of ales, cacti, cycads, palms and succulents.

1971

Sengwa Wildlife Research Institute established for the long-term ecological research projects.

1973

Viv and Paddy Wilson create Chipangali Wildlife Orphanage in Zimbabwe, the concept was very appealing, their calendars and the publicity generated by the orphanage further raised the importance of wildlife in public consciousness.

1975

Parks and Wildlife Act subdivides the departments estates into 6 classes of protected area: There are currently 11 National Parks, 14 Botanical Reserves, 3 Botanical Gardens 5 Sanctuaries, 17 Safari Areas, and 12 Recreational Parks covering about 5 million hectares. The Act also established a board of independent experts to advise the minister. Landholders could now apprehend and sue illegal hunters for compensation of wildlife taken on their property; this encouraged protection of wildlife at the landholder level.

1976

Southern African Epiphytic Orchids by John Ball is published.

1978

DDT is used in Tsetse and later in Malaria-Control programs and as an agricultural insecticide. This pesticide bioaccumulates up food chains and causes significant damage to wildlife populations, especially predatory birds. It became widely used with application rates peaking in 1985 after which agricultural use was banned.

Independence and black majority rule.

1980

43% land large scale, white-owned farms, 42% communal land inhabited by black Zimbabweans, 15% protected State Land.

Zimbabwe's Black Rhino population estimated at about 2000.

1981

Zimbabwe accedes to Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora and fauna (CITES).

Birds of Zimbabwe by Michael Irwin first published.

1982

Drought devastates Zimbabwe; the air force assists with wildlife rescue operations, helping over 1000 head of game.

Department of National Parks and Wildlife Services begin controversial elephant culls to in response to overpopulation of elephants that were causing widespread habitat damage in some protected areas. Over the next 5 years, entire family groups were culled but some calves, especially females, were spared and used in reintroduction programs elsewhere.

RIFA Conservation Education Camp set up in the Mana Pools area by the Zimbabwe Hunters' Association in conjunction with the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, creating one of Zimbabwe's best environmental education facilities, catering for up to 1200 children per year.

Zambezi Society formed, a conservation and sustainable development advocacy group working in the Zambezi Valley.

1983

Through CITES Zimbabwe agrees to stop all international trade in rhino parts.

1984

Save Valley Conservancy is established by combining 24 adjacent farms and at

3 200km 2 it is one of the largest private game reserves in the world. Eventually, elephants, buffalo, giraffe, black rhino, white rhino, lion, eland, zebra and wildebeest are re-stocked into the area and a single perimeter fence is constructed to contain the animals.

1985

The Prime Minister, Robert Mugabe, authorizes shooting of poachers in self-defense, leading to an intensification of anti-poaching efforts in National Parks Areas.

Wildlife Producers Association formed to represent producers and develop markets for their game.

Use of DDT as a general agricultural pesticide is banned in response to human health concerns.

Ostrich farming begins in Zimbabwe, and by the late 1990's is a successful export-oriented industry with over 45 000 domestic birds, compared to a wild population of about 2000.

1986

The Rhino Girls Charlene Hewitt and Julie Edwards cycle 22 000km from Scandanavia, through Europe and Africa to Zimbabwe meeting famous personalities including Margaret Thatcher, Phil Collins and the Pope in order to raise awareness about Africa's endangered species. This remarkable feat raised the profile of the conservation movement in Zimbabwe significantly.

1988

A Field Guide to Snakes and Other Reptiles of Southern Africa by Bill Branch first published

Water Hyacinth is now a major pest on Harare's main water supply, Lake Chivero, and its proliferation is compounded by chronic eutrophication of the water supply and many resources are devoted to its control.

Widespread acceptance of the sustainable use concepts and launch of CAMPFIRE.

1989

CITES ban on international trade in elephant ivory.

CAMPFIRE (Communal Areas' Management Programme For Indigenous Resources) is finally launched after more than 10 years of negotiations and politicking. This revolutionary management scheme finally allowed communal farmers to financially benefit from the wildlife on their land (albeit with significant injections of US AID). This quickly became a widely used and adapted model for sustainable development in Zimbabwe and abroad. 90% of revenue generated is from the sale of game to foreign trophy hunters. It should be noted here that this model compliments the centrally administered National Parks system by encouraging the stewardship of wildlife populations outside formally protected areas where wildlife populations would normally be reduced as a result of human-wildlife conflict.

Elephant floppy trunk disease was first reported around Lake Kariba. Initial paralysis at the tip of the trunk gradually moved up and resulted in total paralysis. Scores of cases were reported in 2000 in South Africa and Zimbabwe.

Greg Rasmussen establishes Painted Hunting Dog research project raising considerable local and international awareness of the plight of these animals whose populations had been reduced to about 150 in the early 1980s.

Victoria Falls declared a UNESCO world heritage site.

Frogs of Zimbabwe by Angelo Lambiris published.

1990

Rhino Girls found Environment 2000 (now called Environment Africa , which has over 700 members and 30 staff (2003).

Southern African Ferns and Fern Allies by J.E. Burrows and Grasses of Southern Africa by E. Gibbs Russel published.

1991

Elephant census – population about 76 000 (about 10% of all the elephants in Africa), human population about 11 million.

Use of DDT in malaria control program is discontinued largely due to concern over contamination in tobacco exports.

A successful programme using weevils ( Neochetina eichhorniae ) to control invasive water hyacinth begins on Lake Chivero.

1992

Zimbabwe signs to the Convention on Biological Diversity in Rio, and later ratifies it; this important conference requires signatories to conserve biological diversity, promote its sustainable use and to share the benefits from its genetic resources.

Once again drought devastates Zimbabwe, this time the worst in living memory, Zimbabwe defense forces assist with wildlife rescue operations.

CAMPFIRE continues to be successful and now over 70 000 households are participating.

Britain stops funding land reform due to mismanagement and corruption.

1993

Extensive poaching of Black Rhinos over the years has reduced populations from 2000 at 1980 to 370. This led to intensification of anti-poaching activities and a de-horning programme, halting the decline.

1995

Nearly 30% of Zimbabwe's land now being used for wildlife conservation 14.8%, being State controlled Parks and Wildlife Estate and Forest Reserves.

Wildlife Producer's Association now has 680 members (about 15% of all commercial farmers).

1996

1st Pan African Symposium on the sustainable use of natural resources held in Harare.

The Mana Pools National Park in the Zambezi Valley was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

1997

Anton Rupert launches Peace Parks Foundation creating the concept of joining wildlife parks in neighboring countries to form transfrontier wildlife reserves. They agree to focus on the Southern African region. It has seven honorary patrons, namely President Mogae (Botswana), His Majesty King Letsie lll (Lesotho), President Muluzi (Malawi), President Chissano (Mozambique), President Nujoma (Namibia), His Majesty King Mswati lll (Swaziland), and President Mugabe (Zimbabwe). Nelson Mandela (South Africa) is Patron Emeritus of the Foundation.

CITES delegates at the Harare meeting approved the applications by Zimbabwe, Namibia and Botswana to sell an annual quota of their collective 55 tons of ivory stockpile to Japan. None of the revenue generated was put back into direct elephant research or elephant conservation.

1999

The Pungwe pipeline inter-basin water transfer scheme is completed to supply the city of Mutare with water from a pristine national parks area. The necessity for this project was called into question in the light of recent completion of the (much closer) Osborne dam and it was mired in allegations of corruption, poor environmental impact studies and exorbitant costs (US$ 60m).

Land Confiscation and Political Upheaval

2000

Disgruntled peasant farmers invade white-owned commercial farms and privately owned game reserves, action that was tacitly sanctioned by the government. The new settlers disrupt farming activity and several white farmers and their workers are murdered.

Poachers and war veterans, taking advantage of the political impasse, heavily hit the Save Valley Conservancy and other conservancies. Francis Nhema, the minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism criticized these actions, but little action was taken to restore order.

Illegal settlers invade an historically contested northern section of the Gonarezhou National Park.

After an excellent rainy season, Lake Kariba opens its floodgates for the first time in decades. However, this did not cause any significant rise in river levels downstream.

Under the Peace Parks initiative, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa sign treaties to establish the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, which at 35 000km 2 will be the world's largest wildlife conservancy.

2001

Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force established in response to environmental damage caused by land invasions and the break down of law and order, and poaching reports throughout former game ranches and conservancies continue.

In addition to snaring animals with wire made from boundary fences, the settlers on conservancies are reportedly burning grass, destroying wildlife grazing in order to make the animals easier to hunt and clearing trees for fields, and building materials.

2002

The Government passes restrictive media laws, condemned by the EU, the US and media rights organisations, criminalise the publication of inaccurate information and require journalists to register with a government body, and information flow from the most adversely affected areas of the country is severely reduced.

2003

Matobo Hills declared a UNESCO world heritage site.

Lion and Cheetah Park on the outskirts of Harare seized by a retired army colonel.

A special police unit is established to protect tourists in Victoria Falls and to help resore confidence in the battered tourism industry.

Illegal hunters from South Africa are reported to be taking advantage of the chaotic situation in Zimbabwe and hunting game, paying small trophy fees to the settlers.

2004

WWF and Save the Rhino Foundation report an upsurge in Rhino poaching over the last 3 years. They also note that that the Dept of National Parks are losing up to 10 men per month at times, largely through mortality aggravated by HIV/AIDS and that posts are frozen and no new manpower has been recruited for three years while fuel and staple food shortages have greatly reduced the ability of the patrol teams to operate effectively.

Justice for Agriculture (JAG) reports that for the last two years many settlers and some unemployed farm workers have resorted to poaching and wholesale tree cutting to survive - or get rich. Wildlife/tourism direct losses run to over Z$ 6.3 billion. It is believed that these figures are conservative and total losses could be much higher.

Peace Parks foundation announces plans to form the Limpopo/Shashe Transfrontfer Park, which will join Mapungubwe (South Africa) with Tuli Safari area (Zimbabwe) and Tuli Block (Botswana).

It is estimated that just 500 white farmers remain on their land, down from 4000 in the year 2000.

Some Army officers and National Parks staff are accused of poaching game in the Kariba/Chirara game area.

Reports estimate that 40-80% of large game animals on former wildlife farms and conservancies have been poached. These figures undoubtedly vary from region to region but true estimates are difficult to ascertain because many former landowners have been evicted, or the estimates have not been done.

Zimbabwe continues to slump economically resulting in almost complete dissolution of the formal economy, and wildlife continue to be decimated on formerly privately owned lands, but National Parks lands remain relatively intact.

200 black rhinos moved from Gourlays Farm in Matabeleland threatened by cross-border trophy hunting and moved to the Bubi Conservancy and Gonarezhou.

Operation Murambatsvina (or Drive Out Trash) begins using police, army and buldozers to destroy the homes of 700,000 urban dwellers - widely seen as punishment to urban voters for their strong support of opposition parties.

Two Chinese nationals, believed to be part of an illegal ivory dealing syndicate involving former Bikita East Member of Parliament Walter Mutsauri, were granted a record $250 million bail each.

Diamonds are discovered in the Manica Province, resulting in an uncontrolled diamond rush on the Marange communal lands.

Tourism and environmental ministers from Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia, Botswana and Zambia sign a memorandum of understanding for the establishment of the second transfrontier park "Okavango-Zambezi" mainly along the Zambezi River, which straddles all five countries.

Runaway inflation undermines the ability of officials to enforce wildlife laws.

Rolf D. Baldus and Dr. Graham Child release a report published in African Indaba funded by a foreign NGO to conduct a feasibility study to rebuild the Zimbabwean Wildlife sector.

Food shortages resulting from a collapsed agricultural sector result in spiralling demand for bushmeat.

Inflation and lack of equipment undermines National Parks staff ability to protect wildlife. Parks admit that 40 rhino have been poached over the last 3 years yet they refuse US$ 500,000 donation from Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force citing the negative publicity being generated by Johnny Rodriguez.

A significant upsurge is seen in rhino poaching throughout the country at the end of the year, and the slaughter of 3 dehorned black rhinos on Imire Game Reserve sparks international outrage.